Methods and Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Techniques and Analysis - Essay Example Meetings are valuable techniques for information assortment. Whenever done appropriately and expertly, the discoveries of the meeting can give the specialist significant bits of knowledge with respect to the topic. In many meetings, organized inquiries are utilized to direct the questioner in his/her mission to remove helpful data from the interviewee (Denscombe, 2007). This meeting specifically centers around proficient experience just as online training. The primary goal is to discover the view of individuals seeing their current employments just as any online courses they may have considered. The arrangement of inquiries utilized in this meeting will empower me get the chance to see how individuals see their own bosses and their activity just as on the off chance that they make any critical commitment to the achievement of their association all in all. The inquiries will likewise be helpful in seeing how individuals who considered online courses locate the entire experience. For w hat reason accomplish you work with your present business? I accept the establishment I work with has objectives that resound very well with my convictions. I needed to work in an establishment that offers need to great showing practice just as an extraordinary duty on dealing with understudies needs most definitely. I have an extraordinary enthusiasm for educating and affecting on the lives of youthful understudies in grounds and universities and I trust I have the ability to offer what my present manager needs and help the entire organization accomplish its objectives. What makes you altogether different from your different partners at work? There not a lot truly to isolate us since we as a whole offer comparative perspectives on training and educating. I would anyway say that I am an all adjusted individual and with my experience, I offer the organization a great deal of valuable feelings and points of view regarding where we need to be and what we need to do to arrive as a gathe ring. I feel that is the thing that separates me from my associates, my longing to succeed and wide experience. What plans do you have for innovative work in your field of specialization? I trust in appropriate exploration to bring out new and pertinent information to assist us with adapting to rising issues. Most definitely, I am as of now dealing with certain tasks that will be expected for distribution soon. I am taking a shot at a book to be discharged soon, which I expectation will assist establishments with managing developing difficulties as they endeavor to teach youthful understudies. After my PhD, I intend to take my exploration further and take a shot at more books just as examination papers that I plan to present to all partners in the field of training. What might you say is your significant commitment to your establishments division? I have started and participated in different changes at the division to make it progressively practical. We have improved essentially in the manner we offer our administrations to understudies since the time I joined the office and I am happy to be a piece of this achievement. What courses do you appreciate educating? I have involvement with a wide scope of subjects going from humanities to sociologies just as business courses. I consequently give my commitment in any field that I am knowledgeable with; anyway I for the most part will in general be one-sided towards reasoning. I appreciate showing theory more than all else, yet as I stated, I generally give my commitment in different zones when I am called upon to do it. What was your experience when taking your college degree? I delighted in all of it. For my first degree, I was a standard understudy and the earth was favorable for study. We made some incredible memories nearby with companions as we embraced our investigations. When I needed to begin my Masters certificate, I was at that point utilized full time, so I needed to enroll for online courses which reques ted a ton of responsibility and devotion. I am happy I gave it my everything and am presently taking my PhD. How does the online course work? It is quite basic since everything you do is to select on a college or school site. When you have been

Dont Go Down in Flames Deal Only With Proven Writer Services

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An Embarrassing One Minute

An Embarrassing One Minute In the tale that is my Junior Spring Semester, two exciting and terrifying themes have emerged. The first is projects; I’m taking two project-based classes (among others), whose projects span the course of several months from conception to development to iterative improvement to final product. It’s a daunting task, as the systems we’re designing are underspecified and open-ended, which means that there’s a lot of groping walls in the dark and stumbling across roadblocks. The second theme is talking. Lots and lots and lots of talking. Most of my classes this semester devote a fair chunk of the grade to participating in various forms â€" whether it’s being involved in the systems analysis of 6.033 (Computer Systems Engineering), or analyzing memoirs and student essays in 21W.022 (Writing Autobiography), or giving several presentations to a classroom full of your peers in 6.813 (User Interface Design and Implementation). It is in this final class that the most embarrassing one minute of the semester reared its head. It’s one of those memories that makes you cringe each time you recall it. Fifteen years from now, when I’m married and have kids and am still swearing angrily over non-functional code and writing dark stories, I will retire to bed, and just before I wonder if I should take Sherwin Junior to his band practice tomorrow, I will think of my performance at the first 6.813 presentation, and I will spend the next thirty minutes cringing and rolling around in bed, looking like this: How did things go so wrong? A Series of Unfortunate Events Mistakes led to falling dominoes, one then another then another then us choking on words in front of a class that looked equally amused and horrified. Let’s roll back a little, shall we? ** 6.813 is an interesting class, one of those course 6 classes that places a great deal of responsibility on its students. Mandatory lecture notes and “picoquizzes” are assigned prior to every lecture. In class, we have additional nanoquizzes testing us on the reading material. And problem sets. And a semester-long project. The project is the heart of the class. Teams of four, or three in my case, come up with a problem they want to solve, the users for which that problem exists, and then implement a full User Interface by semester’s end to tackle that problem. Zero hand-holding exists. We come up with the problem, users and designs ourselvesâ€"the only constraint is that we can’t be part of the users for which we’re creating solutions. So, for instance, we can’t design an app that manages the schedules of college students (because everyone on my team is a college student). We can design apps that connect acapella college groups (because no one on my team is in an acapella group). To help us out, the project is split into six chunks (GR1 to GR6), each chunk worth 7% of our grade, and representing a step toward project completion. For instance, GR1 is about defining the problem statement, identifying users our solution would help, and summarizing high-level tasks our solution would implement. GR2 is about creating several informal design sketches, etc. The end of a GR is usually marked by a four-minute class presentation, in which each member of each team explains their current design progress. My team is called Team Friendly Panthers (we’re very friendly, why else?) and consists of me, Abel T ’17, and Gabriel E ’16. We have three common ways of communicating with each otherâ€"in person (naturally), over Facebook (in which case, I have to forcefully pluck my eyes off cute cat videos and asinine rants about the newest way a celebrity is embarrassing humanity), and via e-mail. On the week our GR1 presentation was to happen, we decided to meet a day earlier (a Thursday, the only day that worked out for all our schedules), and create our presentation. Prior to Thursday, we’d already figured out what we wanted to build, a web-app for letting kids draw and paint and share their artwork â€" spaghetti monsters, evil Santa, ice-cream pizza, whatever their little hearts desired. With the problem statement down, we needed approval from our Teaching Assistant (TA), which we’d already gotten. So, yeah, it was just a matter of creating a bunch of slides. We expected it to take two, three hours tops. We were so wrong. Mistakes we’d unwittingly made were about to bite us in the ass. ** We met in the fifth floor of the Student Center, an Athena cluster full of sleek computers, whirring printers and the kind of faint, typical-MIT discussion that sounds strange without context (“A binary tree is practical, if we make each node a k-size binary heap”). I’d already created a slide for the team and was filling in preliminary info (introduction slide, problem statement slide), when Gabe ’16 mentioned something about interviews. He seemed surprised. “Interviews?” I asked. “What do you mean?” He pointed at a post on Piazza (a website where students and professors get to ask and answer class-specific questions). Someone had asked if the “interviews and observations” needed to be done by tomorrow’s presentation. The professor had replied Yes. What interviews? I went to 6.813’s home page, scrolled to the bottom, which contained links to all the GRs and clicked on GR1. Skimmed through the walls of text quickly. “Create slides describing problem…yada yada…describe user groups…yada yada…none of this is new Gabe…hmm, interviews…interview three potential users and incorporate your observations from these interviews into the slides…” Three potential users meant three young kids. Ordinarily, finding three kids to interview for an MIT project wouldn’t be too bad in Boston, but at such short-notice, we didn’t even know where to start. We spent a while discussing where we could find kids and eventually decided that if we scrapped the idea in favor of a new one, whose users we could find on campus, we would still be on track to creating a kickass presentation. So we brainstormed, considering all possibilities. An app for MedLinks (MIT students who act as first-aiders and as intermediaries between MIT Medical and undergraduates). But what would the app do that their current website already didn’t? An app for musicians, theater students, political enthusiasts…Nope, nope and nope. An app for…an app for fireants to find other fireants maybe? An app for clouds? An app for apps! At some point, we eventually settled on the perfect idea. None of us really cooked for ourselves at the momentâ€"unless you considered freezing ice or pouring milk into a bowl of cereal cookingâ€"and thus we could create an app for cooking enthusiasts in MIT to view and share recipes. That sounded pretty awesome, so we e-mailed our new idea to the TA for approval, and set off to our respective dorms to find and interview cooking enthusiasts. What followed was a night of simple interviews, documentation, typing. At some point, we had our presentation slide finished. I did dry runs of what I would present until I was confident I would nail it tomorrow. Then I worked for a bit on my 6.045 (Automata, Computability and Complexity) p-set, until about four a.m., and called it a night, feeling pretty happy with how much we’d gotten done. I checked my e-mail. No response from the TA yet. Ehh, she’d probably respond in the morning. I sent her a link to our slide for tomorrow’s presentation, and was about to dive under my sheets, when I realized something felt…off. I wasn’t sure what, but something was off. It only took three minutes of searching to find out. The initial e-mail we’d sent, describing our new project idea, had been sent to the wrong address. And normally, the e-mail system alerted you if the address you’d sent anything to didn’t exist, but we’d had the misfortune of sending our initial e-mail to a wrong but existing address. I’ll use fake e-mails for the sake of privacy, but our mistakeâ€"not the first of the day, not by a long shotâ€"was analogous to sending an e-mail to [emailprotected] when you’d meant to send it to [emailprotected] Somewhat panicky, I sent an explanation to the correct address along with the new slide, breathed a sigh of relief. Slept. Hours later. Blaring alarm. Sunlight. Grumpy snooze. Alarm off again. Fine. I get up, brush my teeth, checking my e-mail at the same time, thinking somewhat nervously about the presentation we needed to make in the next forty-five minutes. I was nervous, but I felt ready. Hmm, an e-mail from our TA. I read through it. My heart turned to dancing drums. Teaching staff felt like we were part of the user group. Our recipe idea for the project had been rejected, and we needed to come up with a new idea and a new presentation, in time for class. Hell broke loose for our team. We scrambled around, spending the next thirty minutes coming up with new slides, a new presentation. Thirty minutes! Needless to say, we were ill-prepared. Class time rolled around. Teams went before us, presenting sleekly polished slides and content grins. Time felt strange and liquid, pushing my team through the rest of the hour, until somehow, we were standing in front of the class, ready to make a presentation that had barely existed an hour ago. Words came out of each of our mouths, but I think that’s as much as we accomplished. You can picture how it went. Awkward, painful, terrifying. We still got claps (pity claps, we called them), but I knew that at that moment, I had no choice but to drop out of MIT and open a business somewhere in Las Vegas selling sushi and tacos. ** GR1 has thankfully become a faint memory in a day chock-full of bad decisions. Ego salves have appeared in bits and pieces (I got a 105% on the last 6.045 p-set, thanks to hours burnt on the extra credit problem. And even better, a comment I made on a Taylor Swift page started a flame war. Of course, the Swifties won). Our dignities are still recovering, I think, but we learned several lessons from the several mistakes we made. I think the mistakes are pretty clear, and I’ll spare you the tediousness of enumerating them, but suffice it to say that I’m both surprised and humbled that nearly three years into my MIT experience, I’m still astounded by the things the Institute continues to teach me, even outside of class. And by the number of ways I can still fall on my face, pantless. Given my luck, it’s only a matter of time before that expression ceases to be a silly metaphor and becomes literal, so watch out for that blogpost. But for now, GR1 is a thing of the past. The staff let us use the weekend to come up with a brand new idea and new interviews (our final product is gonna be a central hub for varsity athletes, and yes, its been approved). Our GR2 presentation happened last Friday. For GR2, our team had to come up with a total of twelve distinct interface designsâ€"or four per person, the first three individual, the fourth a combination of our individual sketchesâ€"and present a distilled summary of our designs to class. Needless to say, we made ourselves aware of the full specs well in advance, and spent days crafting our sketches. Our second presentation went very well. For now, the sushi/taco restaurant can wait. **

Feminism Is Defined As The Theory Of Political, Economic,

Feminism is defined as the theory of political, economic, and social equality of the sexes. (Definition of Feminism) and also as the organized activity on behalf of women s rights and interests. (Definition of Feminism). If one would look in-depth into Feminism they would see that there are three waves of Feminism. Now not all types or waves of feminism is wrong, but third wave, or the most recent, should not be supported, because they often tell myths that are just not true or usually use a fact then twist and manipulate what it really means. The first wave of feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought that occurred in the 19th century and early 20th century. First wave feminism focused on legal issues such as gaining†¦show more content†¦Women in countries that have an established structure of Sharia Law are almost never seen being supported by third wave feminists. In 2000, two Punjabi sisters, 20 and 21 years old, had their throats slit by their brother and c ousin because the girls were seen talking to two boys to whom they were not related. (Hymowitz) Third wave feminists were nowhere when this incident came through the media and exploded on the internet. So if these third wave or modern feminist really care where were they during this event? They did not have any march for fundraiser so to speak to give out support for the family. Next, third wave feminist fight for social and economic equality. They argue that women will get paid less than a man and that men are more likely to get a job than a woman. Modern feminists also argue that there is a rape culture that is embodied in universities across the US. When in theory this is not true. Modern feminists say that for every one dollar a male makes a woman will only make 77 cents. This is used to combat and say women need equal pay when in reality they already have it. Statistically speaking, the women workforce is greater in low income jobs then men. So therefore, men would automatically make more if you would take the averages. Next is another reason the wage gape is a complete and utter myth. Women on average will work less hours than a man on a fulltime job. So if you wouldShow MoreRelatedFeminist Theory And International Human Rights786 Words   |  4 Pagesof feminist theories and international human rights discourses as detailed in UN documents. The UN has advanced women’s rights by introducing a new human rights discourse, and by offering a place for interaction among women from different parts of the world. Women have used these opportunities from the UN to push several different feminist theoretical frameworks. The author examines the interaction of these various feminist. theories. 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After a while, women got sick of living a strict lifestyle. They became tired of staying caged in their houses, cooking, and cleaning, and not being able to do what they truly wanted and so desired. So, they decided that they wanted this no more and needed to do something to put a stop to this and make change. What they really wanted was equality between men and women and wanted the same opportunities thatRead MoreIn Our World Today, The Living Generations Seem To Be Incredibly884 Words   |  4 Pagesliving generations seem to be incredibly divided in their values, beliefs, and political stances. These differences were prominently shown in the most recent presidential election. Within these differences are differing opinions in what feminism stands for and what the acts in the name of feminism truly mean in the context of society. Feminism as defined by the Merriam Webster dictionary is: â€Å"the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes.† If this is the definition, why is thereRead MoreFeminism : A Social, Economic, And Social Equality Of The Sexes1465 Words   |  6 PagesFeminism. This seemingly harmless word can ruin or heighten a person’s reputation, it can give someone new views on the world, it can destroy relationships, it can build new ones; this single word can change lives. Most people categorize â€Å"feminism† as a code for women that tells them to hate men, not shave, burn bras, be vegan, and if there is any time left over maybe, just maybe, to fight for women’s rights. Now, there are definitely feminists that fulfill this stereotype but the vast majority ofRead MoreBlack Feminist1005 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to Oxford English Dictionary, Black Feminist can be defined as a movement consisting of African American women advocating social, political, legal, and economic rights for women equal to those of men (Oxford English Press). Black feminism argues that sexism, social class oppression, and racism are inseparably bound together (Collins). The feminist movement has been around since the 1880s when the word â€Å"Feminism † appeared in the French language (Collins). The word found traction in Britain

How I Learned to be the Person I am Today Essay - 811 Words

A person’s life is a journey filled with bumps, detours and dead-ends while the route is shaped by the people, places and experiences that litter the path. It does not matter if a person graces your life for a moment or for a lifetime, each one helps guide our destination by helping define who we are and who we will become. These relationships bring us the many tools that we will need along the way. My parents and friends have given me great roadside assistance by teaching many ethical principles. Because of them, honesty and acceptance are two core values of mine that will be tremendous assets in a future business career. I was born and raised in Minnesota by two loving parents who valued truth and honesty. They always told me that†¦show more content†¦They will also be confident that I will conduct myself with open communication both inside and outside of the company, treat my customers and clients fairly and not mislead anyone with bad information or unrealistic expectations. Honesty will help me be a good colleague to my co-workers because I will give them proper credit for the things that they accomplish. Growing up, I learned many things from my parents, but I also learned values from my many high school friends. Every kid wants to be accepted, but the school years can be tough. In my high school there were many labels for people and if someone did not fit those labels they had a hard time feeling like they belonged. My friends were not the typical athletes, musicians, or students. We were a mix of kids who saw things differently and looked different. We had long hair, wore edgy clothes and listened to music that was not a favorite among our peers. We often felt that teachers and other students judged us, so we worked hard at accepting others and treating others with respect. If anyone wanted to be a part of our social circle, we happily accepted them no matter what color their skin was, how they dressed, or wore their hair. 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A Soldiers Home Setting Analysis Essay examples - 707 Words

Carrie Clifford Mr. James AP English 12/P7 9 October 2012 A Soldier’s Home: Setting Analysis In Ernest Hemingway’s short story â€Å"A Soldier’s Home†, Krebs, a soldier, returns to his hometown from fighting in World War I. As indicated throughout the story, â€Å"home† for Krebs is not unlike the war front: confusing, complicated, and restless. Hemingway uses the setting in Kansas, during World War I, to convey Krebs post-war life in comparison to his pre-war. The title â€Å"Soldiers Home† reveals the question; where is the soldier’s home? In the short story, Krebs frequently mentions being over in Germany and France, expressing that he was more fond of these places than his little hometown in Kansas. â€Å"On the whole he had liked Germany†¦show more content†¦Krebs soon comes to isolate himself and oppose discussing his war experience and the influence it had on him. For Krebs, living in a town that has moved past the war, was his reason to reminisce on his war experiences and t he women who would walk the streets in Germany and France. After spending two years in World War I, adapting to the real world was asking Krebs to let go of everything that has shaped him since he has been gone. â€Å"He sat there on the porch reading a book on the war. It was a history and he was reading about all the engagements he had been in. It was the most interesting reading he had ever done.† Even after arriving home, attempting to adapt to the fact that the war was over, he studied war events he was part of; routes and war sites he had taken and fought at. The summer of 1919 is a difficult time for Krebs to accept because although the town has moved on from the war, he wishes to hold on to what he believes, is still the present. Hemingway uses the setting to bring the reader a clear understanding that war was a strong impact on soldiers who had been participants of it. The setting reveals the big picture; nothing is over until’ you let it go. Hemingway portray s the soldier’s hometown to be very similar to the war, in the perspective that his hometown is very confusing, complicated, and restless. The title â€Å"A Soldier’s Home† brings irony to the setting in the sense thatShow MoreRelatedAnalysis of Literary Devices in Soldiers Home Essay951 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Soldier’s Home by Ernest Hemingway Ernest Hemingway â€Å"Soldier’s Home is an outstanding short story that shows the tragic impact of war on the life of a young soldier who returns home. The story paints a vibrant picture of a soldier’s life after coming back from a shocking experience. Hemingway shows impacts of war on a soldier with the main character being Harold Krebs, who faces hostility in his hometown after his return from fighting in the war. The main character in the story is Kreb withRead More Comparing Loss of Self in Soldiers Home, Pauls Case, and Bartleby1442 Words   |  6 Pagesof Self in Hemingways Soldiers Home, Cathers Pauls Case, and Melvilles Bartleby the Scrivener  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Hemingways Soldiers Home, Cathers Pauls Case, and Melvilles Bartleby the Scrivener all present a loss of self. These stories prove that there is a fine line between finding ones self and losing ones self. I believe this loss can occur at any age or station of life. This idea is seen in each storys main character. Hemingways Soldiers Home depicts a young man in his earlyRead MoreMaximo Badaro s One Of The Guys : Military Women, Paradoxical Individuality, And The Transformations Essay1509 Words   |  7 Pagesinterviews, and informal conversations carried out over the course of nine years. He cites other anthropologists’ studies of female inclusive militaries to support his conclusions. While the article provides deep analysis into how the military is changing as an institution, it is lacking in its analysis of individual experiences. The article begins with a brief history of the women in the Argentine Army, explaining that when Argentina transitioned from a dictatorship to a democracy, the public had a negativeRead MoreAnalysis of I Am the Grass1707 Words   |  7 PagesAnalysis of I Am The Grass Daly Walker has written a story about a doctor who is haunted by the shame and guilt he carries with him from the atrocious acts he committed while serving in the army; acts so horrible that he cannot speak of them. The story depends on his use of three literary elements: setting, plot and symbolism. He has never told his wife and daughter anything about the time he spent as a grunt with the 25th infantry in Vietnam even though the horrible memories are with him all theRead MoreLiterary Analysis of a Very Short Story2462 Words   |  10 Pagesstory by Ernest Hemingway. Title: A very short story Author: Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961). Source: CAPPELEN DAMM AS, Oslo 2008 – Access to English literature, VG3. Anthony, Burgess, Mikkelsen amp; Sà ¸rhus. Chapter 1, page 23-24. Setting. A lot of geographic places are mentioned in the short story, as the characters move around, however the most important part of the story is set to Padua, in northern Italy. The story is about an Italian woman, Luz, and an American soldier, so theRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder1718 Words   |  7 Pagespeople suffer from are not combat, they are childhood abuse, sexual abuse and other violent events. For soldiers, the PTSD they develop is following their return from combat. The reason for soldier’s diagnosis of PTSD is due to events during combat, not the events that occurred prior to enlisting. â€Å"In such settings of collective trauma, it is particularly critical to look beyond the individual when considering both the effects of trauma and strategies for intervention and prevention† (Ozer 2004: 171)Read MoreCareer Research Assignment : Nursing1245 Words   |  5 PagesCareer Research Assignment Nursing, RN, BSN â€Å"What is the reason for your visit today?† This is one of the many questions a nurse will ask his or her patient upon admission to hospital, clinic, or even home setting. What is nursing practice? Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities, prevention of illness and injury, facilitation of healing, alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individualsRead MoreThe Effect of Vietnam War on the Soldiers1679 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican saw Vietnam veteran. For veterans returning home, it was like leaving a war to join another. The soldier were returning to a country that saw them as monsters (Cite). James Westheider, a Professor of American History and chair of the Social Sciences and Humanities Department at the University of Cincinnati-Clermont College states that soldiers were warn that the antiwar movement was â€Å"hostile† and to be careful when they return home (161). Many people could not differentiate between theRead More A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words: Visuals as a Persuasive Tool for War3029 Words   |  13 Pageshelplessness and need for protection as the basis of his war poster. Through careful implementation of color and patriotic images, Smith is able to send a strong and convincing message to the American people in â€Å"Don’t Let That Shadow Touch Them.† The setting of this picture is in an open field with the shadow of the swastika imprinted on the green grass. Coming out of the center of the picture, in a somewhat 3D fashion, are the figures of three children, one girl and two boys. The little girl has herRead MoreSSD2 Module 3 Notes22142 Words   |  89 Pagestheir subordinates, coaching other NCOs, advising senior leaders, and helping develop junior officers. Leaders allot sufficient time and resources, and empower NCOs to plan, prepare, execute, and assess training with their Soldiers based on the NCOs analysis of identified strengths and weaknesses. Training management is an essential part of a units leader development program. Sergeants time training is a common approach to NCO-led training events. NCOs conduct sergeants time training to standard,

Businesses Receives the Raw Materialsâ€Free Samples for Students

Question: How to the Businesses Receives the Raw Materials? Answer: Introducation The value chain is being defined as the strategic tool which is used in the management of the firms analysis with showing the internal firm activities. Its aim is to identify the values of the activities which enables in differentiating the source and also the advantages can be easily shown by depicting the source of the cost. The improvement of the work can be depicted to be providing the competitive advantage and also the internal activities of the firm are being revealed by showing both the advantages and the disadvantages (Ayers, 2006). The firm must compete through the competitive advantages and the disadvantages that are identified by indicating the enhancement of the work and also the enhancement of the work can be made by showing the performance of its activities. This will show the improvement in the work which is being used by showing the appropriate structure of the company and also it will show the capability of producing the goods and the activities that are required for the enhancement of the work. The capability is being made by showing the internal activities as it is being defined the value chain and also the superior products can be provided with achieving a huge amount of the profits (Bozarth Handfield, 2016). The value chin model consists of the primary activities and the support activities. The primary activities consist of the adding value to the production process which is being used directly and also these are not so much important for the supporting activities. The support activities are referred to as the information that enables in showing the appropriate construction of the system which will enable the process by showing the innovations in the information system, R D, and the general management which are depicted to be the vital sources of the differentiation advantages (Burf, 2009). The costs can be easily identified by showing the enhancement of each activity and also the proper management of the costs can be appropriately fixed by showing the management of each activity. The integration of the more activities can be easily made by showing the vertically integrated processes that enable the establishment of the vertically integrated activities (Weele, 2015). The importance of this tool can be appropriately explained by the usages which are being measured in the form of the two various approaches which are the cost advantage and the differentiation advantage. The cost advantage is used in the form of organizing the costs which are used to compete (Chopra Meindl, 2016). The factors are depicted to be driving the sources of the costs that enables in identifying the firms primary and the support activities and also enables the appropriate establishment of the relative importance of each activity in the form of the total costs of the product. The identification of the cost drivers are depicted to be identified for the each activity and also the identification is being made between the links. The construction of the work is being structured by showing the appropriate enhancement of the activities that ensures in showing the opportunities for the purpose of reducing the costs (D'heur, 2016). The differentiation advantage is being described as the advantage that enables the establishment of the superior products or the services that thrive the differentiation creation of the advantage. The structure can be easily made by showing the advantage approach. The identification of the customers is made by showing the evaluation of the differentiation strategies that enables in establishing the improvement in the customer values. The identification of the best sustainable differentiation is showing the enhancement of the work, and the identification of the best sustainable ways can be easily measured. These are the overall description that can be provided in the case of the value chain analysis (Sen, 2008). Design of the value chains The value chain plays a significant role in innovation and quality systems. The central Queensland University relations are linked as the part of the innovation system. The value strategy can be implemented through the value chain. It is recognized that the technological advancement has changed the activities of the organizations. The central Queensland University delivers more than three hundred training and education offering from certificates and short courses through postgraduate, undergraduate and research degrees. The study areas include trades and training, apprenticeships, law and accounting, visual arts, humanities, built and engineering, information technology, digital media, health, social work and community services, psychology, environment, and science (Floyd, 2006). The materials and instruments are required by the university to carry out their work processes. Thus, the supply of all the materials is important for the University. The University conducts many courses, an d the main factor in processes and production in creating new results varies a lot. The requirement of instruments and equipment is related to the chemical and engineering process. Maintenance of the laboratory equipment, facilities, and many other operations are organized by the University. The administration implements strategies related to the ICT, legal advising activities, financial administration and engineering support activities (Human, 2008). The procurements can be transferred into the project funding arrangements. The primary activities begin with the idea development and generation. The relation with the suppliers is very much important for the adequate supply of all the materials. The materials are used for carrying out the day to day activities. The research and development department also need materials and equipment for the research process. The value chain model is used in the university for strategic management planning in order to keep the actions in focus. The ne twork development, subcontracting and project funding need to be the focus by the management (Pinnock, 2012). The value chain model of Rio Tinto Group is about understanding the safety, health, environmental, economic and social impacts of the operations which include materials for the manufacturing of the products. The main goal of the company is to obtain the status of the suppliers and recognition for the commitment to the environmentally, safe and socially responsible production, products use and transport (Kim, 2005). It is important for the company to understand the environmental, economic and social implications of the activities. It allows to decrease the negative impacts and optimize the benefits. The non-mineral and mineral waste are generated during the processing and mining operations. The suppliers are engaged to share their values and support the social license. The company works with the suppliers to create a sustainable supply chain that decreases environmental impacts and waste, drive the working capital efficiency and encourage economic development. The company also ensures that the products are transported safely to the customers and meeting the regulatory requirements. The product stewardship programs ensure that the products meet the regulatory requirement (Laric, 2004)n nations. The consumers and customers determine the sustainable activities of the company, and the company ensures they meet the quality specifications and product design. The products contribute to the sustainable development by enhancing sustainable markets, sustainable stocks and sustainable communities. The external stakeholders and employees are a significant part of the value chain. The company also focuses on improving the working conditions and conserving resources and environment. The company has completed its extensive research into the bauxite shipping operations and had the authorisation to continue the shipping bauxite. Supply chain visibility has become more important in the organizations all over the world. Comparison of the value chains The value chain comparison of the Rio Tinto Group and the Central Queensland University is being provided in the following points: - Rio Tinto Group A value chain analysis is defined as the chain of the activities which are conducted by the Rio Tinto Organisation for the purpose of delivering the high-quality product or the services to its customers. The value chain process is being determined by showing the appropriate process which begins by the Rio with the exploration and also it is depicted to be going through the several sections that enhance the development of the work and also enables the establishment of the work which is being shown by depicting the expansion of the work (Lindgreen, 2016). The appropriate establishment of the several sections can be easily identified by showing the increment of the investments and also the ultimate focus is being made on the enhancement of utility which is being focused on the development of the work. The structure of the study is showing the refining of the materials which is showing the extraction of the precious materials and also the representation of the Rio's value chain procedure can be appropriately constructed. Therefore, the margin of the mine tailing is being provided by showing the re-circulating in the upward movement and also the increment of the value is being made by showing the enhancement of the lowering the risk of the raw materials which are depicted to be available in the country (Papageorgiou Georgiadis, 2008). The new burdens arise with the enough risks that are available for the depicting the new burdens and also it arises with showing the creation of the values for the purpose of depicting the growth in the productive stage in the business. Central Queensland University The Central Queensland University is showing the creation of the work which is being shown for the development of the structure, and also the centralization of the concept can be shown by illustrating the Inbound logistics and the operations. The outbound logistics and the marketing with the sales can be appropriately explained by showing the enhancement of the work (Pinnock, 2010). The development of the work can be appropriately explained by showing the enhancement of the work with showing the main process regarding the consideration of the functional activities. These are provided in the form of the showing the institutional activities which are performed with showing the coordination in between the members of the organization. Conclusion The value chain helps to increase the efficiency of the organization. The value chain analysis results in the ability of the company to understand and optimizing the activities that increase the profit margin and lead to the competitive advantage. Thus, the main goal of the value chain is to strengthen or create a competitive advantage. The value chain of Central Queensland University is quite different from the Rio Tinto Group (Sabri Shaikh, 2014). The primary activities of the company can be carried with the supply of the materials, and it is important to establish a relationship with the suppliers. It an organization creates an advantage through the value chain then it can increase its profit margin. Thus, it can be said that the value chain is important and many organizations in the world are focusing on the value. References Ayers, J. (2006).Handbook of supply chain management. Boca Raton, Fla.: Auerbach. Bozarth, C., Handfield, R. (2016).Introduction to operations and supply chain management. Boston: Pearson. Burf, D. (2009).World class supply management. [Place of publication not identified]: Mcgraw-Hill Education. Chopra, S., Meindl, P. (2016).Supply chain management. Boston, Mass. [u.a.]: Pearson. D'HEUR, M. (2016).SUSTAINABLE VALUE CHAIN MANAGEMENT. [Place of publication not identified]: SPRINGER INTERNATIONAL PU. Floyd, D. (2006).Business studies. London: Letts. Human, J. (2008).Business studies. Cape Town: Nasou via Afrika. Kim, B. (2005).Supply chain management. Singapore [u.a.]: Wiley. Laric, M. (2004).The value chain and marketing. Bradford: Emerald Group Pub. Lindgreen, A. (2016).Sustainable value chain management. London: Routledge. Papageorgiou, L., Georgiadis, M. (2008).Supply chain optimization. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. Pinnock, A. (2010).Business studies. Claremont [Cape Town]: The Answer. Pinnock, A. (2012).Business studies. Claremont [Cape Town]: The Answer. Sabri, E., Shaikh, S. (2014).Lean and Agile Value Chain Management. Ft. Lauderdale: J. Ross Publishing Inc. Sen, M. (2008).Business Management. New Delhi: Global Media Publications. Weele, A. (2015).Purchasing supply chain management. Australia: Cengage Learning.

Ch 6 General Discussion Essay Example

Ch 6: General Discussion Paper Overview The effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning, hereafter called biodiversity-function, is a vast field of study. It connects the maintenance of diversity in species communities with the fluxes of energy and matter in ecosystems. Biodiversity-function relationships found in experiments are a major development in basic ecological science, which can bridge the gap between population, community and ecosystem scales of study. They highlighted an indirect consequence of biodiversity loss, that the functioning of entire ecosystems may be threatened, including those that provide services for humans. But to improve both our ecological understanding of the functional role of biodiversity in ecosystems and our applied understanding of how real-world ecosystems are affected by biodiversity change, we need further developments. Firstly, we need to explain what biological mechanisms drive the biodiversity-function relationships found in controlled experiments. Secondly, we need a next generation of long-term, field-scale experiments conducted in complex landscapes, which will have direct relevance to real-world ecosystems and their management. The work I have presented has an ambitious scope: beginning with the study of interactions between populations and the mechanisms for biodiversity effects, and ending with human impacts on biodiversity and how we might use this research to improve the conservation of real-world ecosystems. In chapters 2 and 3, I tested a method for measuring plant interactions in natural communities and then analysed how those interactions might determine properties of plant communities. These chapters firstly give a potential resolution to debate on what forces shape the diversity and composition of plant communities and then improve our understanding of the mechanisms by which diverse plant communities can enhance ecosystem functioning. I found that a major method for measuring competition in natural communities is flawed, and recommended that different approaches are required to truly measure the role of species interactions in structuring plant communities. I then used simulation modelling to connect experimental evidence with relevant theory, to assess when we might expect to find definitive evidence of positive biodiversity effects. These two chapters dealt with the mechanistic basis for biodiversity-function relationships and our technical ability to describe them—vital f or interpreting past experiments and as a basis for progressing into real-world ecosystems. We will write a custom essay sample on Ch 6: General Discussion specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ch 6: General Discussion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ch 6: General Discussion specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In the remaining chapters, the concern was firstly to push the frontier of biodiversity-function research into complex landscapes, where this research can have more applied impact. And secondly to equip ourselves with the knowledge on biodiversity change that is required to comprehend the real-world importance of this research. I analysed results from one of the first experiments in complex landscapes, where biodiversity change has been severe and the potential cost to ecosystem functions and services is great. I found initial evidence, from a long-term experiment, that diversity could help improve the effectiveness of forest restoration. I then scaled up even further to focus on global biodiversity change, rather than its functional role in ecosystems. To know how biodiversity change will impact real-world ecosystems we must know what change is occurring. I found that intensive agriculture reduces the diversity of farmland wildlife by a third overall. We might use this information to meet 6.131 global food requirements whilst minimising its cost to wildlife. Other work that I have been involved with looked at the effects of land use more widely and found that the impacts of human land use on biodiversity are severe, but there is scope for future mitigation (see Appendix III). Measuring interactions in plant communities In chapter 2, I tested the predominant method for measuring the effect of competition in natural plant communities. The method is an observational approach that assumes we can infer the effects of interactions from natural variation in the densities of co-occurring species. The effect of competition between species is estimated by predicting how the population size of each species would respond to the removal of competitor species. We performed this observational analysis on experimental mixtures and compared the prediction with our test: monocultures, where species grow without competitor species. The method consistently underpredicted the effect of competitor removal, undermining any inferences that can be made using this method regarding how interactions structure plant communities. If plant species did not interact, understanding the effects of diversity on ecosystem functioning would be simple. We would only need information on the abundances of each species in a community and their performance in monoculture. But this is clearly not the case. Even selection effects of diversity are the product of interactions. Huston (1997) described the selection probability effect—that diversity increases the probability of including any species—as an artefact of experimental design. But others showed that this probabilistic side-effect is not in itself sufficient to create any effect of diversity (Loreau Hector 2001; Cardinale et al. 2004; Weis et al. 2007). For any species to contribute to a diversity effect, they must alter the per capita performance (e.g. relative yield) of other species through interactions like competition (Loreau Hector 2001). Thus, regardless of debate on what mechanisms drive diversity effects (see Mechanisms of diversity effects), competition is key to understanding how species combine in diverse communities to influence ecosystem functions. The method tested in chapter 2 estimates the effect of competition by predicting the impact of species loss. Such a method is clearly relevant to the study of the impacts of biodiversity loss on the community-level properties that drive ecosystem functions. Understanding the role of competition in structuring plant communities and consequently driving ecosystem functions requires tried and tested methods for quantifying the strength of competition. Evidence of interactions in biodiversity experiments is clear, because the biomass of multi-species communities cannot be described as just the additive combination of monoculture biomasses (Cardinale et al. 2011). But taking biodiversity-function research out into natural ecosystems means that we need robust methods for measuring interactions in natural communities, which can reliably predict the effects of losing species. There are many methods for measuring competition—some are experimental, some are observational—but overall they do not give the same results (Gurevitch et al. 1992; Rees et al. 1996; Martorell Freckleton 2014). We therefore need to understand why different methods give different results, which methods accurately predict the effects they intend to quantify, and what causes any inaccuracies in these predictions. The flaws in the major experimental methods are well documented (Connell 1983; Freckleton Watkinson 2000), but until now the observational methods had received less scrutiny. The method tested in chapter 2 is predominantly conducted using observational data, but interestingly the approach was first taken using experimental data (Mack Harper 1977). An experiment could control for confounding variables like soil nutrients, moisture, light and temperature. Confounding variables can obscure the effects of the density of one species on the future density of another species, because correlation in the environmental responses of two species can be misconstrued as an effect of species interactions. This is one of the potential reasons why the observational method poorly predicted the effects of competitor removal. If true, it would highlight where experiments can help in the study of plant competition. However, we underpredicted the effect of competitor removal even in our semi-controlled experiment. Our primary explanation, that it is impossible to infer the fundamental role of competition in natural communities because of the ghost of competition past, suggests the problem is more profound. This would explain why experimental and observational evidence do not generally agree, but it would not yet provide a solution. Further modelling is required to confirm this idea. Perhaps such modelling will suggest new methods, but it may potentially show that we will never be able to use observational techniques to quantify whether plant communities are fundamentally competitive. Debate on the importance of interactions will continue unless this matter is resolved. Debate over methodologies and interpretation have made species interactions perhaps the most contentious topic in all of ecology. The role of local interactions in shaping the assembly and composition of plant communities has been a dividing line in many of the field’s important developments (Lewin 1983; Connor Simberloff 1984; Gilpin Diamond 1984; Abrams 1986; den Boer 1986; Roughgarden 1986; Adler et al. 2007; Vellend 2010). Much of community ecology is based on the idea that niche partitioning and competition are key to understanding the maintenance of biodiversity (Darwin 1859; Hutchinson 1957; Macarthur Levins 1967; Chesson 1991, 2000; Levine HilleRisLambers 2009; HilleRisLambers et al. 2012). But others have claimed that large-scale forces like dispersal and drift are more important (Connor Simberloff 1979; Ricklefs 1987; Ricklefs Schluter 1993; Hubbell 2001). Study of competition is important for biodiversity-function research, because much of the ecological theory invoked to explain diversity effects is based on coexistence between competitive species, often involving competition for resources (Tilman Downing 1994; Tilman et al. 1997a; Loreau 1998a, 2010b). However, just as with other topics in community ecology, the role of niche partitioning caused by competition has been hotly debated in biodiversity-function research (Tilman et al. 1996; Aarssen 1997; Huston 1997; Tilman 1997; Loreau 1998b; Hector et al. 1999; Hector 2000; Huston et al. 2000). There is still a lack of strong evidence for niche partitioning as the major cause of diversity effects, perhaps because such specific mechanisms are rarely cited when diversity effects have been measured (Cardinale et al. 2011). The early debates were addressed by quantifying complementarity and selection effects (Loreau Hector 2001), but in order to develop a mechanistic understanding of diversity effects we now need to move beyond these terms (Carroll et al. 2011, 2012; Loreau et al. 2012; Turnbull et al. 2013). Doing this will require further modelling, measuring, and testing of species interactions. By improving methods to infer competition from natural communities, we can better inform hypotheses about how diverse plant communities in nature can sustain ecosystem functions. For other work I have contributed to, that examined the predictability of plant–soil interactions rather than plant–plant interactions, see Appendix II (Mehrabi Tuck 2015). Mechanisms of diversity effects In chapter 3, I explored the modelling that will be required to understand what mechanisms drive biodiversity effects. I presented a model of the seasonal growth of species that competed for one shared limiting resource. Species differed according to a functional trade-off between their rate of resource capture and the volume of resource pool they can access. This trade-off enabled stable coexistence and complementarity effects. But it was not possible for diverse mixtures to reach a higher yield than the best monoculture of its component species without extra niche differentiation. We hypothesised that mixtures might yield more than the best monoculture if we included environmental resource leaching throughout the season. We assumed that resources not yet locked up in plant tissues could be leached from the soil profile. We simulated growth of communities with varying species richness and measured how much of the resources had been captured and leached by the end of the season. We expected mixtures to capture more and leach fewer resources, because species that could capture resources quickly would minimise leaching early in the season, whilst species that could access more resources in total would continue to exploit the remaining resource pool later on. As we expected, some species mixtures did capture more resources than the best monoculture in the presence of leaching—although this was only a small proportion of all mixtures. Resource leaching differentiated species in time by making some resources accessible only to those species that can capture resources quickly enough. Mixtures that combine the strengths of different species along the 6.136 trade-off could capture resources effectively throughout the entire season, thereby reaching a higher season-end yield. Whilst it was rare for mixtures to outperform the best monoculture, they frequently performed as well as the best monoculture due to the same mechanism. This mechanistic model offers a biological explanation for biodiversity effects observed in long-term experiments. The modelling presented was intended to draw directly from long-term biodiversity experiments, where there is greatest opportunity for measuring and testing how species interact and what effect this has on ecosystem functions. The case for complementarity effects such as resource use of species in mixtures has been demonstrated in theory. Models have shown that mixtures should commonly yield more than expected from the properties of its component species, which is known as overyielding. Experiments have verified this expectation, and some biological mechanisms for overyielding have even been elucidated. A greater number of models have been used to explore when we should expect mixtures to yield more than its highest yielding monoculture, also known as transgressive overyielding. But the mechanisms that could generate this most definitive effect of diversity have been less well explored and, as transgressive overyielding has mostly been found in long-term experiments, it is not clear how often we should expect to see it. By now much experimental evidence has shown that complementarity effects are common, even though the role of niche differentiation is still unclear (Cardinale et al. 2007, 2011). Multiple species usually contribute to the increased biomass in diverse mixtures (Tilman et al. 2001; Hector Bagchi 2007). Positive complementarity effects often increase over time (Reich et al. 2012; Ravenek et al. 2014)—sometimes with concomitant decreases in selection effects (van Ruijven Berendse 2003; Fargione et al. 2007). These patterns suggest that the complementarity effects observed, at least in these experiments, are not a transient effect of artificial species mixtures (but see Turnbull et al. 2013). Various mechanisms for complementarity have been suggested. At the Jena Experiment, some suggested mechanisms have been that species differ in rooting depth and architecture (Dimitrakopoulos Schmid 2004), but more recently that higher diversity might reduce the effects of plant–soil feedbacks (Ravenek et al. 2014). Similarly at Wageningen, diverse mixtures were shown to use nitrogen more efficiently (van Ruijven Berendse 2005) but negative density-dependent effects may also be important, for example species-specific root herbivory by nematodes (De Deyn et al. 2004; van Ruijven Berendse 2009). Other experimental work in similarly agricultural contexts found that transgressive overyielding was common and linked to having a diversity of functional traits regarding resource acquisition and growth strategies (Finn et al. 2013). Perhaps the best evidence of transgressive overyielding has been from Cedar Creek (Tilman et al. 2001), where diverse communities showed increased input and retention of nitrogen due to complementary rooting and belowground resource use, primarily between legumes and C4 grasses (HilleRisLambers et al. 2004; Fargione Tilman 2005; Fargione et al. 2007; Mueller et al. 2013). Thus, belowground rooting and resource capture mechanisms were a natural choice to explore transgressive overyielding in mechanistic models. Loreau (2010a) showed what conditions are required to find transgressive overyielding using a two species Lotka-Volterra model. Stable coexistence, and hence 6.138 overyielding, requires that the inferior competitor is limited more by itself than by the competitive effect of the superior competitor. In this case, the inferior competitor would overyield but the superior competitor would not, resulting in a lower yield than the superior competitor in monoculture. Transgressive overyielding requires the additional condition that both species are limited more by themselves than by the other species. To summarise the relationship between coexistence and overyielding: overyielding can occur even in transient mixtures and hence does not guarantee persistent diversity effects (Carroll et al. 2011, 2012; Loreau et al. 2012; Turnbull et al. 2013); if mixtures stably coexist, it follows that they will overyield—there is sufficient niche differentiation for a community to yield more than expected from the properties of its component species; but for a community to yield more than its highest yielding species in monoculture, i.e. show transgressive overyielding, even stronger niche differentiation is required than that necessary for stable coexistence (Loreau 2010a). Therefore, in simple Lotka-Volterra models, the conditions for coexistence and diversity effects are clear. Nevertheless, measuring competition in plant communities remains problematic (see chapter 2) and measuring the effects of niche differentiation has rarely been achieved (but see Levine HilleRisLambers 2009). Wi thout strong measurement it will remain difficult to know when conditions for diversity effects are fulfilled. In more complex models of plant competition, that for example allow nonlinear per capita population growth rates, the relationship between coexistence and diversity effects can be less clear (Gilpin Justice 1972; Loreau 2010a). It is still not known how frequently populations exhibit nonlinear population growth functions. And some mechanisms for species coexistence, such as transient nonequilibrium coexistence, do not predict the same functional consequences of diversity for ecosystem functions (Loreau 2010a). So question marks remain on the generality of such a simple set of conditions to necessitate persistent effects of diversity in plant communities. The model presented in chapter 3 helps identify the conditions under which we might expect to find transgressive overyielding. It appears that even when mechanisms for transgressive overyielding are at work, we should not expect mixtures to yield more than the best monoculture very often. This gives new light in which to consider the rarity of transgressive overyielding observed in experiments. Future work combining experiment and theory should continue to elucidate when and how mixtures outperform monocultures. Doing so will strengthen our understanding more broadly of the functional consequences of species diversity for ecosystems. Understanding theory and small-scale experiments is an important platform for scaling up to the experiments in complex landscapes that can inform management of real-world ecosystems. Diversity effects in complex landscapes In chapter 4, I presented initial results from one of the first long-term biodiversity-function experiments that will be conducted in complex environments, at landscape level, with real-world application. I analysed the first decade of survival and growth at the Sabah Biodiversity Experiment, which is situated in selectively logged lowland forest in South East Asia. The experiment will elucidate biodiversity-function effects in tropical forests, and will help inform the restoration of these degraded ecosystems. The experimental seedlings were planted into the background forest in a way that replicated the restoration practice. By analysing the survival and growth of these seedlings, we could estimate how many replanted trees remain and at what stem density. We found that species differed in survival and growth, following a survivalgrowth trade-off. Species also responded differently to the wide range of conditions throughout the landscape. These differing responses could create a spa tial insurance effect of diversity, thereby ensuring successful restoration throughout the complex landscape. The effect of plant diversity on ecosystem functioning has been extensively studied in small-scale, controlled conditions that usually strive to minimise environmental heterogeneity (Cardinale et al. 2011). In previous chapters I explored the methodological and theoretical developments required to refine our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the biodiversity effects already observed. These developments provide a platform for another frontier in biodiversityfunction research: taking experiments out into natural plant communities, with a more complex range of life histories, in complex landscapes, that directly relate to real-world conservation management (Duffy 2009; Hillebrand Matthiessen 2009; Brose Hillebrand 2016). The experiment in chapter 4 is one example of this growing effort. Tropical forests are important for, amongst other things, their rich diversity, the locally and globally valuable ecosystem services they provide, and economically valuable products such as timber (Sodhi et al. 2010; Maycock et al. 2012; Edwards et al. 2014). Changes in land use, particularly due to agriculture and logging, have drastically changed tropical forests and will continue to do so (Newbold et al. 2015, see   Appendix III). Much biodiversity is threatened or has already been lost. In addition to the direct costs of this biodiversity change, there may also be knock-on effects at the ecosystem level, on the functioning of tropical forest ecosystems and the services these functions provide us. But the functional consequences of biodiversity change for tropical forest ecosystems is not clear because very few experiments have explored these regions (but see Potvin Gotelli 2008; Yang et al. 2013). Because changes in tropical forest are current and due to human activity, they also present a useful setting to explore the real-world applications of biodiversity-function research. In South East Asia, vast areas have been selectively logged and already restocked by enrichment planting programmes. The enrichment planting was partially intended to aid forest restoration by helping reproduce the emergent canopy of old growth forest. But the effectiveness of this technique has not been fully tested, despite its widespread application. The history of land use, enrichment planting, and the natural variation in environmental conditions that is inherent to the systems is complex, producing a landscape that is fragmented and patchy at varying spatial scales. In chapter 4, I showed that enrichment planting with diverse mixtures of trees may spread the risk of failed restoration in complex landscapes, by utilising speciesspecific responses to variable environmental conditions. The average restorative effect of enrichment planting would be maintained throughout the whole landscape. Whereas monocultures might, in unfavourable areas, fail to achieve any restorative effects (or retain overly dense stands of trees, potentially leading to wasteful selfthinning that would undermine efficient enrichment planting across large areas). The results in chapter 4 show the potential improvements in enrichment planting, as informed by biodiversity-function research. Improving this practice may help sustain the functioning and conservation value of these forests. How much of this potential is realised will only become clear as this long-term experiment continues. Further monitoring needs to observe future survival and growth until the planted trees mature and reproduce. It will then be interesting to see how interactions between mature trees affect mixture performance relative to monocultures, and whether planting boosts recruitment of future dipterocarp generations. The restorative effect of this practice on the background degraded forest, which seedlings were planted into, is not yet clear. This is an important step for quantifying how replanting more diverse plant communities can boost functioning of the wider forest ecosystem over time. It has been shown that effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning not only increase over time, but also with increasing spatial scale (Dimitrakopoulos Schmid 2004; Venail et al. 2010; Cardinale et al. 2011), and increasing environmental heterogeneity (Finke Snyder 2008; Tylianakis et al. 2008). This suggests that smallscale controlled biodiversity experiments may have underestimated the impact of biodiversity loss on ecosystems, and that study in large-scale, complex environments will be needed to estimate the full effects (Cardinale et al. 2012). Such heterogeneous environments, with multiple sources of variability and more opportunities for niche differentiation, will be ideal settings to study the effects of biodiversity on multiple ecosystem processes at the same time (Duffy 2009; but see Wardle Jonsson 2010). There are many challenges for biodiversity-function research in complex landscapes. It will be harder to control external factors, reducing our power for inference. Many factors affect ecosystem processes and there is mixed evidence on their relative importance as drivers of ecosystem change (Grace et al. 2007; Hooper et al. 2012; Tilman et al. 2012). One solution could be to analyse biodiversity-function relationships within a constrained set of conditions. The constraining effect of productivity on biodiversity has been measured correlatively at large scales (Mittelbach et al. 2001; Adler et al. 2011; Fridley et al. 2012; Grace et al. 2012, 2016; Pan et al. 2012). Though this correlative work fundamentally differs from experimental work, it might aid research in complex landscapes. If external factors cannot be controlled it would help to know how they interact with the biodiversity-function relationship. Then they may be controlled post hoc and the biodiversity-function relationship can be examined, constrained within the conditions found in the landscape (Loreau 2010a). Globally distributed experiments are a more controlled way to find general patterns in forest ecosystems (Borer et al. 2014). Our experiment is part of such a network (Verheyen et al. 2015). There are also emerging methods and topics that will help extend biodiversity-function study into complex landscapes (see What is the future?). The scale of the problem In chapter 5, I quantified the effects of different farming strategies on farmland biodiversity, including plants and many other taxa. I did this by meta-analysing 30 years of published studies that compared the farmland biodiversity found on intensive conventional farms and extensive organic farms. I found that 34% of overall farmland wildlife is lost on conventional farms relative to organic farms—for plants alone, 73% of species are lost. The biodiversity experiments in grasslands, often rooted in landscapes with agricultural history, show large effects of plant species loss on ecosystem functioning (Tilman et al. 2001; van Ruijven Berendse 2003; Roscher et al. 2005). There is still debate on the relative merits of extensive and intensive farming for global biodiversity (Foley et al. 2011; Phalan et al. 2011; Tilman et al. 2011), but evidence suggests that intensive farming is especially damaging for the functioning of the ecosystems in which the farms are situated. This r esearch was successfully communicated to European policymakers (see Appendix IV). To understand the real-world relevance of biodiversity-function research, we need to know how biodiversity in real-world ecosystems is changing. Global biodiversity is undeniably changing and the predominant cause is human activity (Pereira et al. 2010; Barnosky et al. 2011; Pimm et al. 2014; Ceballos et al. 2015). The problem is so serious that rates of biodiversity loss might exceed the boundaries of a planetary â€Å"safe operating space for humanity† even more dramatically than climate change (Rockstrà ¶m et al. 2009; Mace et al. 2014). Thus, we should measure how human activity drives biodiversity change and then understand the knock-on effects of this change for natural ecosystems—I have provided such measurements of biodiversity change within agricultural systems. To understand the functional consequences of global biodiversity for ecosystems, we need to solve problems about describing biodiversity and measuring its change. Species diversity is changing in a multitude of ways: the composition and structure of species communities, the dominance of species groups, species invasions and biotic homogenisation, and species being driven to rarity and ultimately extinction (Butchart et al. 2010; Magurran 2016). Extinction is irreversible—and the effects of species loss is the domain of biodiversity-function research—so it is crucial we understand how much extinction is going on. Out of the 5–10 million species that might exist on Earth, 1.9 million have been described (Mora et al. 2011)—though misidentification and synonymies present great uncertainty in our knowledge (Goodwin et al. 2015). According to IUCN (2015), 903 known species have gone extinct since 1600. Whilst this may comprise a small fraction of global biodiversity, it represents a rate of extinction 1000 times greater than that documented in the fossil record (Pimm et al. 2014). But lacking information on the most diverse taxa means this extinction rate could be grossly underestimated (Rà ©gnier et al. 2015). Uncertainty remains on the scale of global biodiversity and how it is changing, and what types of biodiversity change most impact ecosystem functioning. But wherever truth lies within that uncertainty it seems the scale of the global biodiversity crisis is severe. Within this global context, there is a current debate on how local species diversity has responded to recent pressures (Vellend et al. 2013; Dornelas et al. 2014; Newbold et al. 2015; Gonzalez et al. 2016). Some claim that there has been no overall loss in local species richness over recent times, because most loss is countered or even reversed by influx of species (Vellend et al. 2013; Dornelas et al. 2014). But others have criticised their approach for having spatial and temporal biases toward underestimating recent loss, and measuring change against inappropriate baseline conditions (Gonzalez et al. 2016). I contributed to work by Newbold et al. (2015), who took a different approach by using spatial variation rather changes over time (spacefor-time approach), and estimated substantial losses to local biodiversity across the globe (see Appendix III). More recently, others have suggested that this space-for-time approach underestimates the impacts of human land use on local biodiversity (Franà §a et al. 2016), so the projections put forward by Newbold et al. (2015) may well be conservative. The state of biodiversity change we see may also depend on what type or 6.146 metric of biodiversity we measure (Pereira et al. 2013; McGill et al. 2015). Ecosystem functioning depends more on local biodiversity than global biodiversity (Cardinale et al. 2012; Hooper et al. 2012). The biodiversity-function relationships from experiments are important results whatever current changes in local biodiversity may be, but the broad consensus is that local diversity is declining and the functioning of ecosystems may be threatened. Even when local diversity is supplemented by an influx of other species, this may only delay local diversity loss (Gilbert Levine 2013) or it may homogenise regional biodiversity (McKinney Lockwood 1999; McGill et al. 201 5). What is the future? Emerging methods When moving into natural communities, synthetic approaches between experimental and observational study may be useful in maximising inference from complex landscapes. For example, experiments in complex landscapes inevitably impose a simplistic and discrete nature to provide more controlled study. But the discrete nature of experimental design will not reflect the landscapes in which they are situated, which may harm their ability to provide meaningful recommendations. One option may be to impose less discrete experimental treatments, for example by planting more continuous gradients of diversity in a way that fits the landscape. The landscape would then be part of the experimental design, rather than randomised away. This would pose problems for inference, as it would inevitably undermine the advantages of experiments. But the synthetic approach would be complementary to such experiments and may provide extra realism to biodiversity-function studies. This change would also benefit from emerging analytical techniques. In the chapters presented here, there are a wide range of analyses implemented: predictive testing (using Bayesian inference), data-free simulation modelling, exploratory data analysis, and meta-analysis. There are many other analytical techniques that may become part of the ecologist’s standard toolkit, often because they offer new ways to tackle the fact that ecological effects are conditional on multiple causes. Smoothing techniques such as Generalised Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) have become very useful, and the theory behind them is becoming more complete (Wood 2006). GAMMs could utilise the continuous nature of new experiments in complex landscapes, to not only account for variation in the landscape but also capture that information for further inference. This would be useful, for example, for estimating the spatial scale of species interactions or spatial variation in diversity effects. As well as GAMMs, structural equation modelling (e.g. Grace et al. 2016) and quantile regression (e.g. Grubb 2016) are among the techniques that will be useful in elucidating effects in dynamic, realworld ecosystems. Remote-sensing is another powerful tool that has emerged in recent decades, as new satellites were launched and started releasing freely available data (Pettorelli et al. 2014). Researchers interested in any global change can use the consistently measured, global yet finely grained, remotely sensed data to ask questions that would otherwise have been impossible to answer (Pettorelli et al. 2005; Asner et al. 2008, 2014). I have produced a tool to access and use one of these archives of remotely sensed data (Tuck et al. 2014a). To date, this tool has been used by over 4000 researchers. Emerging topics Spanning such a broad swathe of research means having to decide what not to study. For example, adding trophic complexity beyond plant communities will improve assessments of the functional consequences of biodiversity change in complex landscapes. Food webs provide a quantitative framework to connect community ecology—the study of species richness, composition and interactions—with ecosystem ecology—the study of fluxes of energy and matter. Biodiversity-function research sits between these two fields of ecology, so using food webs to move beyond single-trophiclevel communities could help build a quantitative framework for the ecosystem-level consequences of biodiversity change (Worm Duffy 2003; Hillebrand Cardinale 2004; Cardinale et al. 2006; Duffy et al. 2007; Thompson et al. 2012). These are rich areas for theory and experimentation, and challenges remain for this framework to become truly predictive. There is evidence that diversity loss among trophic groups has a greater impact on ecosystem functioning than loss within trophic groups (Duffy et al. 2007; Cardinale et al. 2012; Barnes et al. 2014). But the exact structure of trophic networks between consumers and predators can alter biodiversity-function relationships, and these trophic structures are not easily predicted (Yodzis 2000; Thompson et al. 2012; Digel et al. 2014). Network complexity and the food web approach is also a frontier for species coexistence and evolutionary ecology (Chesson Kuang 2008; Allesina Levine 2011). It is possible that mechanisms of coexistence, functional traits, and trophic networks could be combined to model entire communities from the individual- up to the ecosystem-level, and assess the functional consequences of biodiversity change, analogous to how General Ecosystem Models simulate properties of the biosphere (Purves et al. 2013). Community evolution models are a promising addition to research on community and ecosystem ecology (Loreau 2010b). These emerging models could be used to study the coevolution and maintenance of diverse food webs and its ecosystem-level properties (e.g. Brà ¤nnstrà ¶m et al. 2010). They could potentially deliver a more mechanistic and predictive understanding of the structure and functioning of ecosystems (Loreau 2010a). There is a growing trend to consider the effect of biodiversity on multiple ecosystem functions at the same time, so called multi-functionality (Hector Bagchi 2007; Gamfeldt et al. 2008, 2013; Allan et al. 2013; Soliveres et al. 2016). Ecosystem multi-functionality appears to present an even stronger positive role of plant biodiversity in maintaining the functioning of ecosystems (Isbell et al. 2011). When considering only one ecosystem function there may be relatively few important aspects of species niches, so many may seem functionally redundant—although this may be a by-product of the types of short-term experiments most often conducted (Reich et al. 2012; Delgado-Baquerizo et al. 2016). However, when multiple ecosystem functions are considered more niches axes may be relevant and species differences become functionally important. Some have suggested that true redundancy might not exist (Loreau 2004). Important work is still needed to discover how ecosystem multifunctionality responds to biodiversity change and crucially whether any functions trade off with one another, such that biodiversity loss may harm one important function whilst not affecting or even benefitting another. Traditional biodiversity experiments have been conducted under controlled environmental conditions and species composition treatments. The relationships that 6.150 emerge from these experiments might differ from those where the environment can vary, due to disturbances or climatic fluctuations, and species compositions can fluctuate accordingly—but the effect of environmental variation can be unexpected and depend on the ecosystem function being examined (Craven et al. 2016; Fischer et al. 2016; Flores-Moreno et al. 2016). Environmental changes might even result in less diverse mixtures that are originally more productive, but more vulnerable to future disturbance and hence prone to collapse (e.g. MacDougall et al. 2013). Measuring the effects of nonequilibrium conditions is an important step for future research in complex landscapes. This is particularly pressing in a world where human activity is rapidly changing landscapes (Drescher et al. 2016) and environmental extremes are becoming the norm (Fischer et al. 2016; Woodward et al. 2016). Concluding remarks The research presented here has helped make the study of diverse plant communities and their role in real-world ecosystems a more predictive science, rooted in mechanistic understanding. It has combined theory, experiment and observation in a range of ecosystems to improve both our fundamental understanding and our applied impact regarding the ecosystem-level consequences of global biodiversity loss. I have suggested methodological improvements to the study of natural plant communities, and used a suite of analytical techniques to inform European conservation policy and advise restoration strategies in threatened natural ecosystems. The future of biodiversity-function research is to continue down the same path: integrating multiple fields of ecology, solidifying our basic understanding of plant diversity and its role in functioning ecosystems, and verifying its relevance for the management of real-world ecosystems. The field will need to encompass a greater diversity of taxa, trophic interactions, ecosystems, ecosystem functions, and measures of biodiversity itself. Perhaps then this research might unify ecology, from populations up to ecosystems, and become an invaluable framework for the management of our environment and global biodiversity. Previous Page   Ch 5: The Effects Of Organic Farming On Biodiversity

Adolecent Behavior In The School Environment Essays - Free Essays

Adolecent Behavior In The School Environment Essays - Free Essays Adolecent Behavior In The School Environment George Fischer Middle School is a large school and has students attending from six Putnam County towns and two Dutchess County towns. On the average, the graduating class has close to 500 students and the typical class has 32 students attending. The school has two cafeterias in order to accommodate it's large student population, one cafeteria to provide for fifth and sixth graders, and another for seventh and eighth graders. Interesting enough, the different classes do not attend lunch together, in other words, seventh and eighth graders do not attend lunch together nor fifth and sixth graders. Again I assume this is strictly do to the large population of this school. I entered the school at the start of the day, I considered this to be to my advantage, therefor not standing out so much among the huddles of people gathered outside the school building. It can be said that the students appearances varied somewhat, but a whole it remained within a certain unspoken code. The girls wore their hair long-shoulder length or longer, and had it tied back in a pony-tail or very straight. Some were in skirts (slightly above knee level)-all were either corduroy or floral material. Most of the girls though were in jeans and hip length sweaters and wore tennis-sneakers or the clunky type shoes which are all the fashion now. All the girls I saw wore earrings, mostly the small dangling type and often they had two holes pierced. Most of the girls wore make-up, mostly lipstick and eye-shadow, although it was not excessive. The boys all seemed to be in clothes that were least five sizes too big. It consisted primarily of one of these two clothing options: extra-large sweater overlapping a thermal-type shirt, with jeans that were just short of slipping to the ground or extra-large flannel overlapping a thermal-type shirt, with jeans that were just short of slipping to the ground. A close second to this dressing trend for boys was the sweater and jeans/sweater and khakis style, although nowhere near as prominent. Nearly all of the boys wore their hair short, most frequently with the back cut close to the nape of the neck and the top gelled. Some had earrings (both hoop and stud types were observed) and many wore neclaces-either choker chain or hemp styles. All of the boys seemed to be wearing sneakers of endless varieties, and most in the one-hundred dollar range. Aside from these primary gender fashions, there were those who differed. A few of the girls had short hair, a few of the boys grew the top of their hair long. Some of the kids were in clothing that seemed out-dated in comparison to their piers, and even had the appearance of being passe d down from an older sibling. For example, not being in this seasons color or style. There were also those students, primarily boys, that were in football or basketball jerseys or jackets that sported the schools name or mascott. I did note a few girls wearing a football jacket, incidentally with boys names on the front. It was easy to note from these observations that generally, clothing was an outward indicator to distinguish among the various social groups. The clothing the students wore was an immediate indication to various social groups, being that it is a visual observation. It can be said that this is a common factor even in the adult world, but not once did I note a poorly dressed student socializing with a student that was in an athletic jacket or a student that was fashion-forward. It was during the lunch period that I figured I could make distinctions among social groups most accurately At first entering the cafeteria, it was much as I remembered, even much like college. The volume was high and immediately I noticed the groups forming, again this is something which does extend into the later teens, and even into adulthood, but here I was observing a much more rigid standard. There didn't appear to be any casual socializing among different groups (except in one situation which I will mention). The first group I noticed was the jock group, I most likely noted